医学论文发表-实现全球死亡率降低目标和全民健康覆盖:COVID-19的影响
· 毛文辉,
· 奥松杜·奥格布吉
· 大卫·沃特金斯
· 伊普奇塔·巴拉利
· 埃里克·博阿滕
· 穆罕默德·穆斯塔法·迪亚布
· 杜阿·德沃莫
· 迪恩·贾米森
· 普雷蒂·库马尔
· 卡西·肯尼迪·麦克达德
· 诺维尼翁法官
· 叶万德·奥贡德吉
· 曾凡刚,
· 阿曼德·齐默尔曼
· 加文·亚梅
·
· 时间: 2021年6月24日
· https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675
引文:毛 W 、 奥格布吉 O 、 沃特金斯 D 、 巴拉利一世、 博阿滕 E 、 迪亚布 MM 等 (2021) 实现全球死亡率降低目标和全民健康覆盖: COVID-19 的影响。PLoS Med 18 (6): e1003675.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675
已发布:2021年6月24日
版权 所有:?2021年 毛主席等人这是一个开放访问文章,根据《知识共享归属许可证》的条款分发,允许在任何媒体上不受限制地使用、分发和复制,前提是原始作者和来源得到记分。
资金:作者没有获得这项工作的具体资金。
竞争利益:竞争利益:我们阅读了该杂志的政策,本手稿的作者有以下相互竞争的利益:WM、OO、II、KKM和GY宣布,全球卫生政策影响中心已获得多个资助者的研究资金,支持实现大融合:比尔和梅林达·盖茨基金会:加维,疫苗联盟;世卫组织:TDR;和新风险基金F-G Z拥有6家初创公司的股票——阿克森、迪亚纳维、努罗特龙、信天特、Velox和Xense(这些与论文无关)——还从国家卫生研究院(1R01 AG067073;5R01 DC015587)获得资金。
缩写:AARC,年平均变化率;卫生投资委员会:COVAX,COVID-19疫苗全球接入设施;COVID-19, 冠状病毒病 2019;卫生发展援助:DCP3,疾病控制优先事项第三版;国际货币基金组织、国际货币基金组织:利克,低收入国家;LMIC,中低收入国家;孕产妇死亡率:孕产妇死亡率:非传染性疾病,非传染性疾病;PHC,初级保健;SARS,严重急性呼吸系统综合症:可持续发展目标,可持续发展目标:结核病、结核病;U5MR,5岁以下死亡率:UHC,全民健康覆盖
摘要点
· 2019年冠状病毒病(COVID-19)大流行威胁着全球卫生"大融合"的进展——将感染和妇幼健康状况导致的死亡普遍降低到低水平——并朝着实现全民健康覆盖(UHC)的方向迈进。
· 我们的分析表明,COVID-19将加剧实现结核病(TB)、孕产妇死亡率以及5岁以下死亡率的宏伟趋同目标的难度。艾滋病毒目标有可能实现。
· 到2035年,我们的分析表明,低收入国家的公共部门只能通过国内来源资助120项基本非COVID-19卫生干预措施费用的三分之一左右,除非该国大幅度增加对卫生部门的优先重视:中低收入国家同样只能资助不到一半的资金。
· 重新走上大趋同和 UHC 的可能性将取决于 (i) COVID-19 疫苗在 LIC 和 LMIC 中的部署速度:(二) 可从外部和国内调集多少额外的公共部门保健资金:(三) 各国能否迅速加强和集中其保健服务系统。
介绍
2013年,柳叶刀健康投资委员会(CIH)发布了全球卫生2035年,一个全球卫生投资框架[1]。CIH表明,通过适当投资,扩大现有的循证卫生干预措施和新的卫生技术,到2035年,全球卫生将实现"大融合"——将感染和妇幼健康状况造成的死亡普遍降低到低水平。CIH还表明,通过一揽子"扶贫"干预措施,大幅减轻全球非传染性疾病负担和实现全民健康覆盖的可行性。
这一愿景现在可能受到威胁。2019年冠状病毒病(COVID-19)大流行导致全球预防和治疗服务中断[2,3],如结核病(TB)和儿童疫苗接种计划[4-6]。本文探讨了此类中断对实现大趋同和 UHC 的进展的潜在影响。我们首先简要总结2035年全球卫生报告和5年后于2018年发表的后续报告("CIH 2.0"),因为这两份报告提供了一个基准,我们可以根据该基准评估COVID-19的影响。接下来,我们总结关于COVID-1医学论文发表-9如何影响卫生服务的证据。然后,我们分析2000年至2019年孕产妇、儿童、艾滋病毒和结核病死亡率的历史趋势。我们使用这些来探讨如果这些趋势保持不变("无 COVID-19"情景)会发生什么情况,以及在 3 种替代 COVID-19 中断情景(长期死亡率趋势的轻微、中度或严重中断)下会发生什么情况。我们研究大流行对全球经济的影响如何影响低收入国家(LIC)和中低收入国家(LMICs)的 UHC 实现。最后,我们探讨我们的发现对国内和国际卫生决策的意义。
到2035年实现普遍死亡率降低和UHC的机会
CIH将大趋同定义为将感染和妇幼疾病造成的死亡普遍降低到表现最好的中等收入国家[1]的水平。这意味着实现孕产妇死亡率(MMR)为每10万活产64, 5岁以下死亡率(U5MR)为每1 000名活产16人,艾滋病毒年死亡率为每10万人8人,结核病死亡率为每10万人4人("64-16–8+4")。2035年全球卫生表明,可以通过积极扩大已证实的健康干预措施、加强卫生系统以提供这些干预措施以及分发新的卫生技术[7]来实现大趋同。
五年后,即2018年,CIH发表了《40年的阿拉玛-阿塔:柳叶刀健康投资委员会的思考》(CIH 2.0)[8]》,其中对进展情况喜忧参半。令人鼓舞的消息是,如果2010至2016年全球死亡率趋势继续下去,到2035年左右将实现5岁以下和艾滋病毒死亡率的全球趋同目标。但令人担忧的消息是,如果孕产妇和结核病死亡率的下降率与2010年至2016年持平,那么收敛目标要到2067年和2074年才能实现。[9]。
CIH 2.0报告还发现,除印度外,大多数LMIC能够从国内公共资金中负担218项卫生干预措施的"基本UHC"方案。然而,大多数LIC,以及撒哈拉以南非洲作为一个区域,如果不大幅度增加它们赋予卫生的优先权[10],甚至无法负担在初级保健方面提供的108项干预措施的"最高优先一揽子方案"。它们需要外部资金来弥补地方资源优先事项不足。《2035年全球卫生》的发布正值国际货币基金组织(货币基金组织)对有限责任公司和LMIC的经济增长速度非常乐观的时候。到2018年,这种增长的预测不那么乐观。下面,我们考虑了国际货币基金组织的最新预测,以及这些预测对于在大流行和后大流行时代为UHC提供资金意味着什么。
CIH的两份报告都呼吁将卫生援助重新定位为"全球职能"——具有跨国利益的活动,如被忽视疾病的产品开发和大流行预防。2013年,所有捐助者用于卫生的资金中只有23%用于全球职能[11]。西非埃博拉疫情爆发后,这一比例有所上升,但到2017年,这一比例再次下降[12],表明捐助者在为全球职能提供资金方面容易出现"恐慌和忽视"的循环。
对融合和 UHC 的威胁:COVID-19 如何破坏基本服务医学论文发表-
上图,我们描述了一条通往大融合和 UHC 的途径,其基础是通过加强交付系统,积极扩大现有和新的干预措施。COVID-19 如何影响 LIC 和 MIC 的此类医疗保健交付?这种疾病对卫生服务有直接影响:许多重灾区的诊所和医院都挤满了COVID-19患者。此外,文献中至少描述了4个主要因素,导致COVID-19对卫生服务的间接影响,尽管可能还有其他更复杂的途径有待界定。
首先,COVID-19 缓解政策和患者对从医疗保健环境中获取 COVID-19 的恐惧影响了服务的使用。例如,在南非的第一个锁定期,结核病Xpert检测量每周下降约48%,每周结核病阳性检测数量下降33%[13]。第二,用于管理结核病和艾滋病毒等疾病的人力和预算资源已转用于COVID-19检测和治疗[14]。第三,国际旅行限制和区域COVID-19疫情导致药品、疫苗和其他保健品供应链暂时中断[15]。第四,COVID-19的经济后果增加了家庭和国家一级维持日常保健服务的财政障碍[16]。在短期内,卫生预算在若干情况下受到威胁或减少,但COVID-19危机也为许多国家推动主要的长期难民署融资改革提供了机会。
关于基本服务中断的证据大多来自调查,调查表明门诊服务、社区护理和住院服务中断[17];艾滋病毒和结核病方案[18];和 NCD 诊断和治疗服务[19]。然而,COVID-19对不同LIC和LMIC的卫生服务的影响存在上下文差异。为了突出其中的一些差异,我们包括了关于COVID-19在加纳、印度和尼日利亚(S2-S4文本)影响的简短案例研究。
COVID-19 对大融合的潜在影响
这种卫生服务中断以及COVID-19的经济后果将如何影响大趋同的进展?制定大流行后最可能的健康趋势的概率预测将是令人难以置信的挑战和充满不确定性,因为大流行及其影响仍在演变。此外,国家和区域一级的具体经验将不同于全球平均水平,具体取决于(1) 对卫生服务中断程度的当地影响:(2) COVID-19 遏制政策:(3) 新技术的应用(例如COVID-19疫苗):(四)国家经济复苏:(5) 对公共部门卫生支出的政治承诺,这将使许多国家能够回到正轨,甚至超过大流行前的进展[20]。例如,中国的严重急性呼吸系统综合症(SARS)疫情引发了政治变革,重振了公共医疗财政,并朝着UHC(20)迈进。
鉴于制定长期预测的挑战,我们反而利用全球结核病和艾滋病毒死亡率、U5MR 和 MMR 的历史(2009-2019 年)趋势中的风格化扰动进行了探索性建模分析,反映了大流行严重程度和持续时间的合理范围。此建模应被视为"如果"练习,而不是对最有可能的未来路径的陈述。我们的建模工作的目标是从数量上了解,大流行会在多大程度上使世界偏离大趋同的轨道,以及需要什么样的加速才能回到正轨。我们首先预测在"无 COVID"情景(即 2010 至 2019 年观察到的死亡率水平和趋势的延续)下会发生什么情况,然后预测在 3 种不同的中断情景(轻微、中度和严重)下会发生什么情况。我们使用现有证据为这3种方案[21-24]开发参数。2020年和2021年,这3人承担了结核病和艾滋病毒、U5MR和MMR死亡率增加5%的假设(我们称之为"受影响阶段")。对于 COVID-19 后时期(从 2022 年起),我们的次要、中度和严重情况对所有年龄段死亡率(Box 1)的平均年变化率 (AARC) 采用不同的假设。
框 1.反映COVID-19对长期死亡率趋势影响的严重程度的四个建模方案
· 基本案例("无合作-19")方案(S0):在我们的基本案例中,我们根据感兴趣的条件(艾滋病毒、结核病、5岁以下死亡率和孕产妇死亡率)对死亡率变化进行了建模,假设 COVID-19 前的趋势将持续到未来。我们使用 AARC 在 2009 年至 2019 年间的全球死亡率("历史 AARC")来估计到 2035 年的死亡率。
· 小影响方案,进度加快(S1):在这种情况下,我们假设,由于COVID-19在受影响阶段,2020年和2021年,利息条件的死亡率将增加5%,然后在历史上的AARC(2009年至2019年AARC)下降3年("恢复阶段")。之后,从 2025 到 2035 年,我们假设死亡率在 LIC 和 LMIC 的历史 AARC 的 90 百分位下降(仅在 S1 中看到的"加速阶段")。S1 表中显示的第 90 个百分位数是一个雄心勃勃但可行的下降速度(许多 LIC 和 LMIC 实现了此速率或更快的速率)。
· 适度的影响情景,历史趋势的延续(S2):在这种情况下,我们假设由于COVID-19在受影响阶段,2020年和2021年的利益条件的死亡率将增加5%,在3年(恢复阶段)保持持平,然后在2025年至2035年的历史AARC下降。
· 严重冲击情况,正在减速(S3):在这种情况下,我们假设在受影响阶段,由于 COVID-19,2020 年和 2021 年,利息条件的死亡率将增加 5%,在 5 年内保持不变(延长恢复阶段),然后从 2027 年至 2035 年,在历史上的 LIC 和 LMIC AARC 的第 40 个百分位下降(见S1 表)。
图1显示了我们在全球一级报告的分析的汇总结果。该数字显示了结核病和艾滋病毒死亡率、U5MR 和 MMR 的历史趋势,以及 4 种情景 S0、S1、S2 和 S3 下的趋势,以及宏伟的收敛目标。S2 表显示我们的分析分类为 LIC 和 LMIC。我们还计算了实现这 4 个目标所需的 AARC,并将这些值与表现最好的国家的历史数据进行比较,以评估可行性。
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图1。预测全球艾滋病毒、结核病和U5MR以及4种不同方案下的全球MMR(S0+S3)。
我们用来估计2000年至2019年历史死亡率的数据来源包括卫生指标和评估研究所全球疾病负担研究(2000-2019年)按国家和年份(http://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-results-tool)中艾滋病毒和结核病的所有年龄死亡率:2000年至2019年,世界银行按国家和年(https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.MORT)的U5MR:MMR从2000年到2017年从世界银行按国家和年(https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT):以及联合国人口司(https://population.un.org/wpp/)的人口估计。GC,盛大收敛:孕产妇死亡率:孕产妇死亡率:结核病、结核病;U5MR,5岁以下死亡率。
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675.g001
结核病死亡率。
我们的分析表明,实现宏伟的趋同目标是多么具有挑战性:
· S0 方案:根据预测从2020年起,全球结核病死亡率将降至每10万人9.6人左右。如果这一趋势持续到2035年以后,宏伟的趋同目标(每10万人中有4人死亡)要到2066年才能实现。
· S1 方案:在加速阶段(2025年至2035年),结核病死亡率将每年下降5%(2009年至2019年,AARC在LIC和LMIC中所占百分位为90个百分点)。按照这一下降速度,2035年的结核病死亡率将为每10万人8.8例,略低于S0预测。如果这种下降速度持续到2035年以后,直到2051年才能达到宏伟的趋同目标。为了在2035年实现宏伟的融合目标,从2022年至2035年,AARC需要达到10%。这可行吗?从历史上看,从2009年至2019年,全球结核病死亡率仅为3%,结核病死亡率最快的AARC由摩尔多瓦共和国(AARC为8%)实现,其次是安哥拉(7%)因此,即使在最乐观的情景(S1)下,我们认为,也需要新技术和强有力的政治承诺,以便为高负担国家创造一个"有利环境",使结核病死亡率的下降速度更快,达到趋同。如前所述,中国在2003年非典流行后增加了公共部门的卫生支出[26],这也有利于其整个卫生系统,包括加强免疫接种和结核病方案。印度是结核病负担沉重的国家之一,它的目标是到2025年消除结核病,这很可能是不可能的[27]。要在2035年实现结核病的宏伟趋同目标,需要为中小病和LMIC作出额外的政治承诺,以便在大流行之后优先为卫生提供公共部门资金。
· S2 方案:在这种情况下,2025年至2035年的结核病死亡率下降了3%(其历史上的AARC从2009年至2019年),按照这一下降速度,2035年的结核病死亡率将为每10万人12.2例。如果同样的趋势持续到2035年以后,直到2074年才能达到大趋同目标。
· S3 方案:在这里,2027年至2035年的结核病死亡率下降了3%(2009年至2019年,AARC的LIC和LMIC死亡率为40个百分点),按照这一下降速度,2035年的结核病死亡率将为每10万人12.8例。如果同样的趋势持续到2035年以后,直到2100年以后才能达到大趋同目标。
显然,《2035年全球卫生》中最初的宏伟趋同模型是基于一种流行病学背景,这种背景比最近观察到的[1]更为有利。例如,2019年《柳叶刀》结核病委员会展示了过去十年中结核病在几个关键国家如何变得更加难以控制[28],这些趋势在最初的CIH建模[29]中尚未得到重视。
艾滋病毒死亡率。
对于艾滋病毒,有一个"好消息"的故事要讲。由于过去十年来取得的迅速进展,全球艾滋病毒死亡率的情况非常乐观:
· S0 方案:到2025年,艾滋病毒大趋同目标(每10万人8人死亡)将提前10年实现(这一发现与CIH在40项研究中在Alma-Ata中发现的结果相似)。
· S1 和 S2 方案:目标也将提前实现:到2026年S1和2031年实现S2。
· S3 方案:在这种情况下,2027年至2035年的艾滋病毒死亡率仅下降2%(AARC在2009年至2019年LIC和LMIC的第40个百分位中看到),到2035年,艾滋病毒死亡率将为每10万人10.3例。如果这一趋势持续到2035年以后,直到2048年才能达到宏伟的趋同目标。
5岁以下死亡率。
与艾滋病毒相比,U5MR的情况不那么乐观:
· S0 方案:到2035年,U5MR将降至每千活产21.8,高于每千活产16胎的宏伟收敛目标。医学论文发表-目标将在最后期限10年后的2045年左右实现。在40岁的Alma-Ata研究中,CIH预测,根据2010年至2016年美国航空和军法委员会的历史,到2038年将达到目标:我们更悲观的发现反映了这样一个事实,即2009年至2019年的历史AARC低于2010年至2016年(2016年至2019年的AARC低于预期)。
· S1 方案:在加速阶段(2025年至2035年),U5MR 将每年下降 6%(从 2009 年至 2019 年,AARC 在 LIC 和 LMIC 中占 90 个百分点)。按照这一下降速度,2035年的U5MR将为每1 000名活产19.0人,低于S0预测。为了在2035年达到宏伟的趋同目标,2022年至2035年期间需要7%的AARC。这可行吗?从历史上看,从 2009 年至 2019 年,U5MR 中的 AARC 在全球略高于 3%,表现最好的 LIC 或 LMIC 是马拉维、蒙古、乌兹别克斯坦和卢旺达,其 AARC 约为 7%[30]。因此,需要作出政治承诺、技术突破和/或更有效地扩大现有工具,以便到2035年实现趋同。
· S2 方案:在这种情况下,2025 年至 2035 年的 U5MR 年降幅为 3%(历史上的 AARC),2035 年的 U5MR 为每 100,000 人 28.5。如果这一趋势继续下去,到2052年才能实现大趋同目标。
· S3 方案:在这里,2027年至2035年的U5MR下降了3%(从2009年至2019年,美国ARC在LIC和LMIC中所占的百分位数为40个百分点),而2035年的U5MR为每1000个活产31.6个。如果这一趋势继续下去,宏伟的趋同目标要到2058年才能实现。
孕产妇死亡率。
对于 MMR 而言,到 2035 年实现大融合目标也充满挑战:
· S0 方案:到2035年,MMR将降至每10万活产135人,远高于每10万活产64人的宏伟收敛目标。同样,这一发现比40岁时阿尔玛-阿塔的发现更悲观。
· S1 方案:在加速阶段(2025年至2035年),MMR 将每年下降 6%(从 2009 年至 2019 年,AARC 在 LIC 和 LMIC 中排名第 90 百分位)。按照这一下降速度,2035年的MMR为每10万人105.9倍,低于S0预测,但仍远高于大收敛目标(每10万人64人)。为了在2035年达到宏伟的趋同目标,2022年至2035年期间需要10%的ARC。这可行吗?从历史上看,从2009年至2019年,全球的《中东和华》中的AARC低于3%,表现最好的国家是东帝汶和西岸,后者的AARC约为7%[31]。与结核病和儿童死亡率一样,需要作出政治承诺、技术突破和/或更有效地扩大现有工具,以便到2035年实现趋同。
· S2 方案:在这里,2025年至2035年的MMR每年下降3%(历史上的AARC),2035年的MMR为每10万人169.7。如果这一趋势继续下去,宏伟的趋同目标要到2073年才能实现。
· S3 方案:在这里,2027年至2035年的MMR仅下降了2%(AARC在2009年至2019年LIC和LMIC的第40个百分位中可见一斑),而2035年的MMR为每100,000人188.6。如果这一趋势继续下去,到2089年才能实现大趋同目标。
COVID-19 的经济影响:它对 UHC 融资的意义
2035年全球卫生会议认为,宏伟的趋同议程可以而且应该——主要通过国内资源提供资金。在所有LIC和LMIC中,增加国内卫生支出的主要手段是更大的经济增长,这反过来又导致对基于税收和社会保险的筹资体系的更大贡献。随着经济的增长,各国政府还可以选择以高于一般政府支出增长率的速度增长卫生支出(在LIC和LMICs中,自2000年以来,用于政府卫生支出的国内生产总值份额每年增长约0.75%[32])。CIH的分析发现,这两个机制——经济增长和卫生预算重新确定优先次序——将足以为LMIC的盛大趋同——相关干预提供资金。大多数 LIC 需要外部援助,以筹集足够的资源来资助大融合[8]。
如前所述,自《2035年全球卫生》出版以来,LIC和LMIC的增长前景恶化。2020年10月,国际货币基金组织发布了未来几年GDP增长预测,将各国的COVID-19复苏潜力(33)考虑在内。只要2021年控制住这一流行病,大多数经济体有望相当迅速地反弹。然而,由于预计2020年经济将大幅萎缩,2020至2035年保持历史增长率将导致到2035年卫生支出比没有大流行时所能实现的支出减少。例如,历史上每年实现 4% GDP 增长的 LIC 将在 2035 年比 2019 年增加 87%。如果该国经济在2020年收缩5%,并在2021年停滞不前,然后恢复其4%的年增长率,那么2035年其GDP将仅比2019年增长65%。到2035年,国内生产总值增长放缓将导致用于卫生的资金减少,其他条件都相同。
We note that while economic growth is a major driver of public sector spending on health, the relationship is not always a linear process, and, throughout history, there have been step changes in public financing that have often followed major crises. We previously mentioned China after SARS; other recent examples include Rwanda post-genocide and Thailand after the Asian financial crisis. The COVID-19 pandemic might provide additional motivation to increase public sector health spending in nations that have historically underspent (such as India and Nigeria).
We revisited the analyses done in the first 2 CIH reports through the lens of the pandemic and the IMF’s most recent projections of economic growth in LICs and LMICs. The starting point for our analysis was a list of 120 non-COVID-19 health interventions that would form a model essential health intervention package implemented through a UHC system [34]. As described by Blanchet and colleagues, these 120 interventions were adapted from the 3rd edition of Disease Control Priorities (DCP3) and underwent additional scrutiny as to the feasibility of their delivery amidst COVID-19–related disruptions.
We used the DCP cost model to generate estimates of the annual per capita cost of this package of 120 health interventions across 32 LICs and 47 LMICs (categorized as in the previous CIH reports) [26]. We then combined these cost estimates with population projections from the 2019 World Population Prospects to estimate the cost of the package in each country by 2035, assuming 95% coverage [35]. Previous modeling studies showed that this level of coverage would be required for these interventions to ensure the grand convergence, and related Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets would be achieved [36]. We then projected total domestic resources available for health by triangulating GDP growth projections from the IMF, estimates of the share of GDP devoted to public sector spending on health from WHO, and projection methods and assumptions detailed in previous CIH analyses [37].
Table 1 summarizes the findings of our analysis. By 2035, LICs would only be able to finance about a third of the costs of the package through domestic sources unless they assign substantially higher priority to health than now seems likely. LMICs would only be able to finance a little less than half. With either income group, there would inevitably be some countries with stronger growth that would be able to fully finance the package, whereas the costs would probably be out of reach for other countries. A detailed analysis of country-by-country costs was outside the scope of this report.
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表1。2035年基本非COVID-19卫生干预措施的成本和可负担性。
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675.t001
在政府预算内将卫生工作置于更优先的优先级,可以使一揽子方案能够负担得起普通LIC或LMIC。如果LIC或LMIC将公共部门用于卫生支出的GDP份额每年分别提高8.5%和5.0%,到2035年,它就能负担得起这一方案。虽然世卫组织的卫生帐户数据库显示,大多数国家历史上没有达到这种卫生支出增长率,但有几个国家做到了。2000至2010年,卢旺达、加纳和多哥每年用于卫生的国内生产总值份额增加10%以上。在所有LIC和LMIC中,医学论文发表-这个90%的国家在2000至2018年(28个百分点)的卫生支出每年增加5.1%。
我们对基本卫生干预一揽子方案可负担性的评估比《全球卫生2035》中分析的要悲观一些,该分析只侧重于大趋同干预(约占表1中所示一揽子方案费用的一半)。我们的发现与阿尔玛-阿塔40岁时的发现大体相似,后者的初级保健(PHC)一揽子计划包括解决大趋同条件以及非疾病和伤害的干预措施。
综合起来的3项CIH分析的一个含义是,随着中小病和LMIC发展其卫生系统对流行病学和人口结构转变的反应,它们将面临越来越困难的权衡,即它们可以通过UHC系统为哪些类型的干预措施辩护。发展伙伴继续侧重于支持大趋同条件——出于公平原因,这是理所当然的。然而,如果不对UHC采取平衡的办法,包括建设解决无国界疾病和伤害问题的能力,各国可能会发现自己在人口健康指标方面进一步落后,因为大趋同条件的剩余负担已经得到解决。事实上,正如Alma-Ata40岁时所示,非定年龄的非定症和伤害死亡率正在上升,而不是在一些LIC和LMIC中下降(与HIC相比,它们继续下降)。这些趋势表明,如果各国政府和发展伙伴只注重筹资和实施与之相关的干预措施,那么到2035年以后,各国的卫生不平等问题可能会变得更加明显。
我们调查结果的政策影响
甚至在COVID-19之前,CIH在其2018年Alma-Ata 40报告中发现,如果2010-2016年全球死亡率趋势继续下去,到2035年结核病和MMR的宏伟趋同目标将无法实现[8]。CIH的结论是,需要大规模扩大在表现不佳国家经证实的结核病和产妇保健干预措施,并发展新的保健技术,才能走上正轨。我们的分析表明,COVID-19现在将使得实现结核病和MMR目标变得极其困难。而且,虽然2018年的报告发现,2035年艾滋病毒和U5MR的目标是可行的,即使在COVID-19大流行面前,艾滋病毒仍然如此,但各国现在也很难在2035年之前实现U5MR的目标。
除了大趋同之外,COVID-19 还威胁到与健康相关的可持续发展目标议程。虽然宏伟的趋同条件和干预措施是扶贫型UHC的基石,但越来越明显的是,实现对UHC的广泛定义,包括预防和基本护理非定症和伤害也受到威胁。对无定症和伤害的服务似乎比为感染和妇幼保健状况服务更受干扰。预计这一流行病将对人口心理健康产生不利影响,因此,卫生部门内外需要做更多的工作,以应对全球抑郁症、焦虑症和创伤后应激障碍负担的预期上升。这些情况本身会妨碍患者参与卫生系统并采取大趋同干预措施。
实现大趋同和 UHC 显然需要作出重大承诺,使卫生不仅在大流行期间,而且在大流行后恢复年保持健康处于国内和全球发展议程的首位。我们认为,能否回到大趋同的轨道上来,将取决于以下3个关键因素:(一) 如何迅速部署COVID-19疫苗,以达到LIC和LMIC的高人口覆盖率:((二) 可以从外部和国内调集多少额外的保健资金:(三) 各国能否迅速加强其保健提供系统,特别是PHC系统,包括通过新的分娩方法(例如远程医疗)。
COVID-19疫苗的全球分布
向中小病和LMIC部署疫苗的一个主要障碍是"疫苗民族主义"——富裕国家通过与疫苗制造商的双边采购协议囤积疫苗剂量[38]。加拿大政府已经购买了足够的剂量,为所有公民接种了6倍以上的疫苗,而美国和英国也紧随其后,购买了足够的剂量,为所有公民接种了4倍以上的疫苗。新的COVID-19疫苗全球获取机制(COVAX)——一个全球合作机制,在COVAX高级市场承诺的资助下,为COVID-19疫苗提供公平获取的机会——希望到2021年底能够向LIC和LMIC分发20亿剂疫苗。这足以为每个国家约15%至20%的人口接种2剂量的疫苗。在编写本报告时,该基金已购买了27亿剂[39剂],并认为因此,它正朝着实现2021年目标的轨道努力。
除非采取一致行动纠正这种不公平现象,否则,缺乏对LIC和LMIC的疫苗部署将阻碍它们从COVID-19中恢复,并阻碍它们实现大趋同和UHC。富裕国家需要(一) 加强对COVAX的承诺,包括COVAX先进的市场承诺,即为LIC和LMIC的疫苗采购提供资金:(二) 将多余的剂量捐赠给COVAX;(三) 同意与 LIC 和 LMIC 共享疫苗制造知识。疫苗的制造需要迅速全球化,以印度血清研究所为例,该研究所正在制造牛津大学/阿斯利康大学疫苗。该研究所最初向COVAX提供剂量,用于向LIC和LMIC分配,直到印度的激增要求剂量只能在国内使用(该研究所将在2021年底再次向COVAX提供剂量)。中国似乎越来越有可能在直接提供COVID-19疫苗方面发挥关键作用,例如科罗纳瓦茨(由中国公司Sinovac制造),以及更广泛地向LIC和LMIC提供卫生发展援助。
Insufficient manufacturing of COVID-19 vaccines and challenges to distribution of vaccines are 2 other bottlenecks to achieving global vaccine herd immunity. The Serum Institute of India, one of the largest vaccine manufacturers, produces 70 million doses every month, and it is expected to increase its capacity to produce 100 million doses per month from July 2021 [40]. Manufacturing in the US and other high-income nations is expected to ramp up in 2021 to produce enough doses to cover not just their own nations but to donate doses to COVAX or directly to LICs and LMICs. These countries will require easy to deliver, affordable vaccines in large quantities to cover their populations. The US has recently joined other nations in supporting an intellectual property waiver on COVID-19 vaccines, which could give the green light to LICs and LMICs to start manufacturing their own vaccines (this would also require technology transfer and support for scaling manufacturing facilities and capacity). Distribution challenges in some LICs and LMICs include insufficient health workers, the cold chain requirements, and reaching people in urban slums and hard-to-reach regions [41]. To date, licensed vaccines remain efficacious against all known variants of concern. Nevertheless, there remains the possibility that new variants could evade vaccine-induced immunity.
Mobilization of domestic and external health financing
Both domestic health financing and DAH will play a critical role in getting countries back on track to reach grand convergence and UHC.
LICs and LMICs need to keep health spending at the top of their agendas. The pandemic and the measures to control it (e.g., stay-at-home orders) have had an economic impact on various sectors, with rising levels of unemployment, poverty, and income instability and inequality [42]. Countries are bound to face competing priorities over the next few years, and domestic resource mobilization and budgeting will need to carefully assess spending priorities to ensure that levels of public sector spending on health are not negatively impacted. The challenges will be particularly acute for countries with ongoing fiscal weaknesses, such as low tax revenues and high aid dependence and debt levels [43]. In order to ensure that domestic resources for health continue to support grand convergence and UHC, key priorities for country governments include the following:
· Prioritization of health in their budgets to ensure that health gains and progress toward UHC are not reversed: Although in the short run it may appear that the health sector is receiving large amounts of additional resources, in many countries, there are concerns that there may be substantial reprogramming of health outlays that cannot be sustained in the long run. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown, perhaps more starkly than ever, why it is so critical for nations to continue to prioritize health spending and, equally as important, to prioritize spending whose value for money (in terms of health impact or financial protection) is highest. As the experience of China after SARS has shown, pandemics can lead nations to reinvigorate their commitment to health. Countries like Thailand and Vietnam that have been highly successful at curbing COVID-19 could use this opportunity to accelerate their trajectory to grand convergence and UHC. It is quite possible that other countries will follow suit—including even countries like the US that have, historically, had a lukewarm commitment to UHC [44].
· Planning and budgeting for health, which needs the careful attention of ministries of health: Such planning includes determining the most cost-effective priorities, improving spending efficiency, and allowing for flexibility in redirecting spending for emergencies, including procurement of COVID-19 vaccines [45]. Accountability and expenditure tracking mechanisms can help to improve transparency and avoid leakages of scarce resources. At a broader level, finance and planning ministries will need to step up efforts to stabilize funding in the long-term through multiyear programming and planning [46].
· Greater attention to tax policy: This will be critical to ensure sustainable revenue generation in the long run through measures such expansion of the tax base, improving tax compliance and administration, and diversifying sources of government revenues, including exploring the potential for imposing health taxes (e.g., taxes on alcohol, coal, and tobacco) [47,48]. Countries should renew their commitments to the 2015 Addis Tax Initiative and take actionable steps to enhance domestic revenues [49]. Research has shown that people are willing to pay higher taxes in exchange for health and education services that visibly improve their lives; however, this willingness usually requires strong social contract, as has been observed in countries in Southeast Asia and Latin America in particular [50].
· Investment in the right health interventions: The CIH noted that “countries in all regions and at all income levels, such as China, Ethiopia, Bangladesh, Mexico, and Thailand, have consistently made smart health investments and have helped to set global standards for the level of health that can be achieved at relatively modest cost” [8]. This conclusion still holds true in the COVID-19 era. The DCP3 model list of essential UHC interventions can provide a helpful starting point for countries to review their current investments and deliberate on health benefit package reforms that make better use of scarce resources [10].
· Engagement of the private sector, which consumes a large fraction of resources used for health in many LICs and LMICs: WHO and UN have recently called for an “all hands-on deck” approach and called for improved performance of the private sector, such as in expanding the health workforce and strengthening supply chains [51,52].
During the acute crisis phase, donors responded rapidly to country needs. The International Aid Transparency Initiative found that in the first 7 months of 2020, commitments to health increased compared to the same period in 2019, driven in particular by multilateral funders such as the World Bank [53]. However, given the economic impacts of COVID-19 on donor nations, future DAH flows could be under threat. Official development assistance (grants and concessional loans) has historically been the most stable external resource in developing countries during past crises [54]. Maintaining DAH will be critical for grand convergence and UHC during the COVID-19 crisis. Particular priorities for donors are the following:
· Funding global functions, especially strengthening national and global preparedness for the next pandemic, including developing and stockpiling medical countermeasures; accelerating the development of new health technologies for the “convergence conditions” (HIV, TB, malaria, and maternal and child health); and shoring up WHO’s core capacities. Even before COVID-19, there was a very strong case for using donor financing to make these preparatory global investments, such as in tackling antimicrobial resistance and strengthening pandemic preparedness, because of positive international externalities [55]. Strengthening surveillance capacity, response capacity, and regulatory capacity in low- and middle-income countries is a way to strengthen national health systems while simultaneously addressing global problems. These investments have global spillovers.
· Providing debt relief, including through mechanisms such as “debt to health swaps” (in which a creditor agrees to waive all or part of an outstanding debt obligation if the debtor government invests the funds instead into the health sector) [56].
· Providing DAH to (a) strengthen PHC systems in very resource constrained environments; and (b) selectively strengthen PHC in MICs for activities with high cross-border externalities, such as pandemic preparedness, control of antimicrobial resistance, and cross-border disease control (e.g., malaria elimination activities).
Strengthening of primary healthcare delivery systems
Finally, strengthened PHC is the backbone for nations to respond to COVID-19, maintain essential non-COVID-19 services, and accelerate progress toward grand convergence and UHC in the post-COVID-19 recovery phase. The 2018 Astana Declaration that UN member states endorsed, arising from Global Conference on Primary Health Care, argued that “strengthening primary healthcare (PHC) is the most inclusive, effective and efficient approach to enhance people’s physical and mental health, as well as social well-being, and that PHC is a cornerstone of a sustainable health system for universal health coverage (UHC) and health-related Sustainable Development Goals” [57]. Allen and Dambha-Miller argued that the pandemic has revealed “areas where progress is needed most” [58]:
· improved coordination between PHC, public health, and other specialties;
· expanding access to PHC services, including for NCDs (S5 Text), including through telemedicine (S6 Text);
· deeper investment in prevention, integrated, team-based primary care, and care of long-term illnesses; and
· the removal of user fees and a guarantee of “comprehensive services without financial hardship.”
Conclusions
The disruption to health services caused by COVID-19 and the accompanying economic impacts have made it more challenging to reach grand convergence by 2035 and achieve UHC. The 2035 targets for TB and MMR will be particularly difficult to reach unless we develop breakthrough technologies. Nevertheless, our analysis has also pointed to ways in which smart donor and domestic investments now and in the post-COVID-19 period can help to get countries back on track.
There are many reasons for optimism about an acceleration in progress after the pandemic. These include the pace of technological innovation (as seen with the development of COVID-19 vaccines, the fastest vaccines to have ever been developed); the adoption of new modes of healthcare delivery; and the way in which the pandemic has placed health investment at the very top of the global development agenda. There has been a sea change in how we do science—international collaborations were accelerated, there was unprecedented mobilization of research funds, and multicountry evaluations led to new health products being approved in record time.
Nevertheless, at the current rate of global vaccination, with only 20% of people in LICs and LMICs likely to be vaccinated by the end of 2021, the pandemic in these nations could last well into 2022 and possibly beyond, with ongoing health and economic repercussions. The most urgent and important task at hand for the global health community is to reach vaccine herd immunity in all nations, so that all can enter a phase of post-pandemic progress in health.
Supporting information
2035 grand convergence targets and estimated outcomes under 4 different scenarios, LICs and LMICs.
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S1 表。2035 年,在 4 种不同方案、LIC 和 LMIC 下实现大趋同目标和估计结果。
利克,低收入国家;LMIC,中低收入国家。
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675.s001
(文档)
S2 表。2009 年至 2019 年间使用的 AARC 用于估算。
AARC,年平均变化率。
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675.s002
(文档)
S1 文本。实现 UHC 的基本干预措施的一揽子。
UHC,全民健康覆盖。
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675.s003
(文档)
S2 文本。COVID-19和加纳的融合之路和UHC。
COVID-19, 冠状病毒病 2019;UHC,全民健康覆盖。
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675.s004
(文档)
S3 文本。COVID-19和印度的融合之路和UHC。
COVID-19, 冠状病毒病 2019;UHC,全民健康覆盖。
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675.s005
(文档)
S4 文本。COVID-19和尼日利亚的融合之路和UHC。
COVID-19, 冠状病毒病 2019;UHC,全民健康覆盖。
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675.s006
(文档)
S5 文本。在COVID-19时代PHC中的NCD控制。
COVID-19, 冠状病毒病 2019;非传染性疾病,非传染性疾病;PHC,初级保健。
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675.s007
(文档)
S6 文本。远程医疗如何改变NCD护理:听力损失护理的例子。
非传染性疾病,非传染性疾病。
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003675.s008
(文档)
引用
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